ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS

ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS:

•

Drugs designed to act selectively on foreign organisms that have invaded and infected the body. 

•

Range from: 

1. Antibiotics 
2. Antifungal 
3. Antiprotozoal 
4. Antihelmintics 
5. Antiviral 
6. Antimycobacterial 

•

General Mechanism of Action: 

1. Some interfere with the biosynthesis of CELL WALL. 
2. Some inhibits CHON synthesis 
3. Some change the cell membrane permeability 
4. Some inhibit DNA synthesis 

The following videos show the mechanism of actions of certain classes of anti-infective drugs as well as how microorganisms develop resistance against them. 

*After viewing all videos, kindly post your learning and/or reactions by answering the following questions in the comment box. This will serve as a one of your requirements in Pharmacology.


1. What are the pharmacologic implications of the differences in human and microbial cell structures?
2. How does each of the agents fight back infection?
3. What are the possible challenges and limitations that an anti-infective drug can encounter now and in the future?

ANTIBIOTICS & HOW THEY TREAT INFECTION

BETA-LACTAM MECHANISM OF ACTION

MACROLIDE MECHANISM OF ACTION

FLUOROQUINOLONES MECHANISM OF ACTION

Pharmacokinetics

PHARMACOKINETICS

is the study of drug movement throughout the body. It involves 4 processes: 

1. ABSORPTION

refers to what happens to a drug from the time it is introduced to the body until it reaches the circulating fluids and tissues.

Areas where drug can be absorbed:

GI tract (oral/rectal)

mucous membrane

skin

lungs

muscle

subcutaneous tissues

Factors Affecting Drug Absorption in the body:

a. Circulation/blood perfusion on the site of absorption

- poor circulation due to shock, vasoconstrictor drugs, or disease hampers absorption

b. Temperature

- cold causes vasoconstriction and decreases absorption; heat causes vasodilation and increases absorption

c. Drug Solubility

- the quality or condition of being soluble or the amount of a substance (water/oil) that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent.

Lipid-soluble drugs can be easily absorbed than water-soluble drugs that usually need a carrier to be able to pass through lipid membranes.

d. Rate Limiting

Disintegration - the breakdown of a tablet into a smaller particles

Dissolution - dissolving of the smaller particles into the GI fluid before absorption; the rate of dissolution is affected by the acidity of the GI tract.

e. Route of administration

IV drugs are easily absorbed than IM, SQ and oral drugs.

ORAL MEDICATION ABSORPTION

IV MEDICATION ABSORPTION

f. First-pass Effect

-the process in which the drug passes to the liver first, which results to a large percentage of the oral dose being destroyed, never reaching the tissues.

2. DISTRIBUTION

the process by which the drug becomes available to body fluids and body tissues.

FACTORS AFFECTING DRUG DISTRIBUTION

DRUG-BINDING

NICOTINE RECEPTORS IN THE BRAIN

3. METABOLISM (BIOTRANSFORMATION)

- process by which drugs are changed into new, less active chemicals. Liver is the primary site for metabolism. 

Most drugs are inactivated by liver enzymes and are then transformed by hepatic enzymes to inactivate metabolites or water-soluble substances for excretion.

4. EXCRETION

-refers to the manner at which the drug leaves the body.

BN 221, please post your reflections on the comment box.

COURSE OUTLINE FOR ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

Course Name:	ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Course Description:	This course deals with human in terms of its adaptations, structural framework, with emphasis on physiology, regulations' adaptive mechanisms, integrates lecture with laboratory experiences which provides exercises and techniques necessary in clinical situations.
Course Credit:	3 units lecture, 2 units lab
Contact Hours/Sem:	54 lecture hours, 108 lab hours
Prerequisite:	None
Placement:	1st year, 2nd semester
Terminal Competency:	At the end of the course and given specific situations/conditions, the studetns should be able to:                                                                                 1. describe the anatomic structures and physiologic mechanisms/processes/systems involved in the following physiologic concepts:             - locomotion, fluid transport, gas exchange, fluid and electrolytes, acid/base dynamics, nutrition metabolism, chemical regualtion, neural regulation, sensory intake, protection, awareness and response to the environment and reproduction.                                                         2. utilize basic anatomical facts and physiological concepts and principles in the nursing care of individuals.

COURSE OUTLINE

I.              THE HUMAN ORGANISM

a.    Anatomy

                                          i.    Definition

                                         ii.    Types of study

1.    Systemic anatomy

2.    Regional anatomy

3.    Surfaced anatomy

b.    Physiology

                                          i.    Definition

                                         ii.    Types of study

1.    According to the organism involved (Human Physiology)

2.    According to levels of organization within a given organism

                                        iii.    Structural and Functional Organization

1.    7 Structural Levels

a.    Chemical

b.    Organelle

c.    Cell

d.    Tissue

                                                                                                                                            Types

1.    Epithelial

2.    Connective

3.    Muscular

4.    Nervous

e.    Organ

f.     11 Organ System

                                                                                                                                 i.    Integumentary

                                                                                                                               ii.    Skeletal

                                                                                                                             iii.    Muscular

                                                                                                                             iv.    Nervous

                                                                                                                              v.    Endocrine

                                                                                                                            vi.    Cardiovascular

                                                                                                                          vii.    Lymphatic

                                                                                                                        viii.    Respiratory

                                                                                                                            ix.    Digestive

                                                                                                                             x.    Urinary

                                                                                                                           xi.    Reproductive

g.    Organism

                                       iv.    Characteristics of Life

1.    Organization

2.    Metabolism

3.    Responsiveness

4.    Growth

5.    Development

6.    Reproduction

                                        v.    Homeostasis

1.    Negative Feedback

2.    Positive Feedback

                                       vi.    Terminology and the Body Planes

1.    Directional Terms

a.    Right and Left

b.    Interior and Superior

c.    Dorsal and Ventral

d.    Proximal and Distal

e.    Lateral and Medial

f.     Superficial and Deep

2.    Planes/Sections

a.    Sagittal/Midsagittal Plane

b.    Transverse/Horizontal section

c.    Frontal/Coronal Section

d.    Longitudinal Section

e.    Oblique section

3.    Body Regions

a.    Division

                                                                                          i.    Limbs

                                                                                         ii.    Head

                                                                                        iii.    Neck

                                                                                       iv.    Trunk

                                                                                        v.     Abdomen

1.    4 Quadrants

2.    9 Regions

4.    Body Cavities

a.    Thoracic Cavity

b.    Abdominal Cavity

c.    Pelvic Cavity

5.    Serous Membranes

a.    Locations

                                                                                          i.    Pericardial

                                                                                         ii.    Pleural

                                                                                        iii.    Peritoneum

                                                                                       iv.    Parietal Peritoneum

1.    Mesentery

2.    Retroperitoneal

                                                                                        v.    Visceral Peritoneum

II.            CELLS, TISSUES, GLANDS AND MEMBRANES

a.    Cell

                                          i.    Cell structure and function

                                         ii.    Whole cell activity

1.    Movement through the plasma membrane

a.    Diffusion

b.    Osmosis

c.    Filtration

d.    Facilitated Diffusion

e.    Active Transport

f.     Endocytosis

g.    Exocytosis

2.    Protein Synthesis

a.    Transcription

b.    Translation

3.    Cell Division

a.    Mitosis

b.    Meiosis

4.    Differentiation

b.    Tissues

                                          i.    Basic Tissue Types

1.    Epithelial tissues

a.    Classification

                                                                                          i.    Simple epithelium

                                                                                         ii.    Pseudostratified Columnar

                                                                                        iii.    Transitional Epithelium

b.    Functional Characteristics

c.    Glands

                                                                                          i.    Exocrine

                                                                                         ii.    Endocrine

2.    Connective tissues

a.    Classification

                                                                                          i.    Dense Connective

1.    Tendon

2.    Ligaments

3.    Dermis of the skin

4.    Organ capsule

                                                                                         ii.    Loose or Areolar

                                                                                        iii.    Adipose Tissues

b.    Matrix with both protein in fibers and ground substances

                                                                                          i.    Cartilages

                                                                                         ii.    Bone

                                                                                        iii.    Blood

3.    Muscle tissue

a.    Types

                                                                                          i.    Skeletal

                                                                                         ii.    Cardiac

                                                                                        iii.    Smooth

4.    Nervous tissue

a.    Parts

                                                                                          i.    Dendrites

                                                                                         ii.    Cell body axon

                                                                                        iii.    Supported cells or neuroglia

5.    Membranes

a.    Categories

                                                                                          i.    Mucous membrane

                                                                                         ii.    Serous membrane

                                                                                        iii.    Other membrane

1.    Cutaneous membrane

2.    Synovial membrane

3.    Periosteum membrane

6.    Inflammation

a.    Function

b.    Symptoms

7.    Tissue repair

a.    Types of repair

                                                                                          i.    Regeneration

                                                                                         ii.    Replacement

b.    Stages

                                                                                          i.    Clot formation

                                                                                         ii.    Inflammation

                                                                                        iii.    Formation of granulation tissue

                                                                                       iv.    Regeneration or replacement tissue

c.    The Chemistry of Life

                                          i.    Organic molecules

1.    Carbohydrates

2.    Lipids

3.    Protein

a.    Enzymes

4.    Nucleic acids

III.           INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

a.    Structure of the Skin

                                          i.    Layers

1.    Epidermis

2.    Dermis

                                         ii.    Skin Color

                                        iii.    Functions of the skin

                                       iv.    Effects of Aging on the Integumentary system

b.    Accessory Skin Structures

                                          i.    Hair

                                         ii.    Muscles

                                        iii.    Glands

1.    Sebaceous glands

2.    Merocrine sweat glands

3.    Apocrine sweat glands

IV.          SKELETAL SYSTEM

a.    Major components

                                          i.    Bones

                                         ii.    Associated cartilages

                                        iii.    Joints

b.    Connective tissue

c.    General Feature of the Bone

                                          i.    Types of bone based on their shape

1.    Long

2.    Short

3.    Flat

4.    Irregular

                                         ii.    Types of bone on their histological structure

1.    Compact

2.    Cancellous

                                        iii.    Bone ossification

                                       iv.    Bone growth

                                        v.    Bone repair

d.    General Classification of Bone Anatomy

                                          i.    Axial Skeleton

1.    Skull

a.    Cranial nerve

b.    Face

2.    Vertebral Column

3.    Thoracic Cage

a.    Thoracic vertebrates

b.    Ribs

c.    Sternum

                                         ii.    Appendicular Skeleton

1.    Pectoral girdle

2.    Upper limb

3.    Pectoral Pelvic girdle

                                        iii.    Articulation

1.    Functional Classification

a.    Synarthrosis

b.    Amphiarthrosis

c.    Diarrthrosis

2.    Structural Classification

a.    Fibrous

b.    Cartilaginous

c.    Synovial

d.    Plane or gliding

e.    Saddle

f.     Hinge

g.    Pivot

h.    Ball and socket

i.      Ellipsoid or condyloid

3.    Types of Movement

V.            MUSCULAR SYSTEM

a.    Characteristics of Skeletal Muscle

                                          i.    Structure

                                         ii.    Membrane potentials

                                        iii.    Nerve supply

                                       iv.    Muscle contraction

b.    Smooth Muscle Anatomy

c.    Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

                                          i.    General principles

                                         ii.    Nomenclature

                                        iii.    Muscles of the head and neck

                                       iv.    Trunk muscles

                                        v.    Upper limb muscles

                                       vi.    Lower limb muscles

VI.          RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

a.    Anatomy

                                          i.    Nose and nasal cavities

1.    Position and structure

2.    Function

a.    Respiratory function

b.    Olfactory function

                                         ii.    Pharynx

1.    Position and structure

2.    Functions

                                        iii.    Larynx

1.    Position and structure

2.    Cartilages

3.    Functions

a.    Respiratory function

b.    Voice function

4.    Trachea

a.    Position and structure

5.    Bronchi and smaller air passages

a.    Structure

6.    Lungs

a.    Position and structure

7.    Pleural cavities

a.    Position and structure

b.    Ventilation and Lung Volumes

                                          i.    Phases of ventilation

1.    Inspiration

2.    Expiration

                                         ii.    Mechanisms of ventilation

                                        iii.    Collapse of the lung

1.    Surface tension

2.    Surfactant

                                       iv.    Pulmonary volumes and capacities

c.    Gas exchange

                                          i.    Factors affecting exchange

1.    Respiratory membrane thickness

2.    Surface area

3.    Partial pressure

a.    Diffusion of gases in the lung

b.    Diffusion of gases in the tissue

4.    Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport in the blood

5.    Modification of Ventilation

a.    Nervous control of ventilation

b.    Chemical control of ventilation

c.    Effect of exercise on ventilation

VII.         CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

a.    The Heart

                                          i.    Size, form and location

                                         ii.    Anatomy

1.    Pericardium

2.    External anatomy

3.    Blood supply

a.    Coronary arteries

b.    Cardiac veins

4.    Heart chambers

a.    Right and left atrium

b.    Right and left ventricles

5.    Heart valves

a.    Atrioventricular valves

b.    Semilunar valves

6.    Routes of Blood Flow through the heart

7.    Heart wall

8.    Cardiac muscle

                                        iii.    Conduction system of the heart

                                       iv.    Cardiac cycle

1.    Systole

2.    Diastole

                                        v.    Heart sounds

1.    Normal sounds S1 and S2

2.    Abnormal sounds – murmurs

                                       vi.    Regulation of heart function

1.    Intrinsic regulation of heart

2.    Extrinsic regulation of heart

b.    The Blood Vessels and Circulation of Blood

                                          i.    Structures and functions

1.    Arteries

2.    Capillaries

3.    Veins

                                         ii.    Blood Vessels of the Pulmonary Circulation

1.    Pulmonary arteries

2.    Pulmonary veins

                                        iii.    Blood vessels of the Systemic Circulation

1.    Arteries

a.    Aorta

b.    Arteries of the head and neck

c.    Arteries of the upper limbs

d.    Of the thoracic aorta and its balance

e.    Of the abdominal aorta and its balance

f.     Of the pelvis

g.    Of the lower limbs

2.    Veins

a.    Vena Cave

b.    Veins of the head and neck

c.    Of the upper limbs

d.    Of the thorax

e.    Of the abdomen and pelvis

f.     Of the lower limbs

                                       iv.    The Physiology of Circulation

1.    Blood pressure

2.    Pressure and resistance

3.    Pulse pressure

4.    Capillary exchange

                                        v.    Control and Blood vessels

1.    Local control

2.    Nervous control

                                       vi.    Regulation of arterial pressure

1.    Baroreceptor reflexes

2.    Chemoreceptor reflexes

3.    Hormonal mechanism

a.    Adrenal Medullary mechanism

b.    Renin-angiotensin Aldosterone Mechanism

VIII.        THE BLOOD

a.    Functions

b.    Composition of blood

                                          i.    Plasma

                                         ii.    Cellular content

1.    Production of formed elements or hematopoeisis

2.    Varieties of blood cells

a.    RBC or erythrocytes

                                                                                          i.    Functions

                                                                                         ii.    Development and lifespan of RBC

                                                                                        iii.    Destruction of RBC

                                                                                       iv.    Blood glucose

1.    ABO Blood Group

2.    RH Blood Group

b.    WBC or leucocytes

                                                                                          i.    Functions

                                                                                         ii.    Main types

1.    Granulocytes

a.    Neutrophils

b.    Basophils

c.    Eosinophils

2.    Agranulocytes

a.    Monocytes

b.    Lymphocytes

c.    Platelets or thrombocytes

3.    Preventing Blood Loss

a.    Blood vessel constriction

b.    Platelet plugs

c.    Blood Clotting

d.    Control of clot formation

e.    Clot retraction and dissoulution

IX.          LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY

a.    Functions

b.    Lymphatic vessels

c.    Organs

                                          i.    Tonsils

                                         ii.    Lymph nodes

                                        iii.    Spleen

                                       iv.    Thymus gland

d.    Immunity

                                          i.    Innate immunity

1.    Mechanical mechanism

2.    Chemical mediators

a.    Complement interferons

3.    Cells

a.    Phagocytes cells

b.    Cells of inflammation

c.    Natural Killer (NK ) cells

d.    Inflammatory Response

                                         ii.    Adaptive immunity

1.    Origin and development of lymphocytes

2.    Activation and regulation of lymphocytes

3.    Types of adaptive immunity

a.    Antibody-mediated or Humoral

b.    Cell-mediated

4.    Ways to acquire adaptive immunity

a.    Active natural

b.    Active artificial

c.    Passive natural

d.    Passive artificial

X.            DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

a.    Activities in the digestive system

                                          i.    Ingestion

                                         ii.    Digestion

1.    Mechanical mastication

2.    Chemical by enzymes

                                        iii.    Absorption

                                       iv.    Provide nutrients

                                        v.    Elimination

b.    Trunks or layers of the Digestive tract

                                          i.    Mucosa

                                         ii.    Submucosa

                                        iii.    Muscularis

                                       iv.    Either adventitia or serosa

c.    Organs and functions of the digestive system

                                          i.    Alimentary tract

1.    Oral cavity or mouth

a.    Tongue

b.    Teeth

c.    Palate and tonsils

d.    Salivary glands

2.    Pharynx

3.    Esophagus

4.    Stomach

5.    Small intestine

6.    Large intestine

7.    Rectum and anal canal

                                         ii.    Accessory organs

1.    Salivary glands

2.    Pancreas

a.    As exocrine gland

b.    As endocrine gland

3.    Liver and the biliary tract

d.    Movements and secretion in the system

                                          i.    Oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus

1.    Secretion of the oral cavity

2.    Mastication

3.    Deglutition

                                         ii.    Stomach

1.    Secretion of the stomach

2.    Regulations of the stomach secretions

a.    Cephalic phase

b.    Gastric phase

c.    Intestinal phase

3.    Movements in the stomach

a.    Mixing waves

XI.          ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

a.    Hormones

b.    The endocrine glands and their hormones

                                          i.    Pituitary and Hypothalamus

                                         ii.    Thyroid gland

                                        iii.    Parathyroid gland

                                       iv.    Adrenal Medulla

                                        v.    Pancreas

                                       vi.    Testes and ovaries

                                      vii.    Thymus gland

                                     viii.    Pineal body

XII.         URINARY SYSTEM

a.    Structure and function

                                          i.    Kidney

1.    Gross structure of the kidney

2.    Microscopic structure if the kidney-nephron

3.    Blood supply

4.    Functions

5.    Urine production

a.    Filtration

b.    Reabsorption

c.    Secretions

6.    Composition of urine

7.    Regulation of urine concentration and volume

a.    Hormonal mechanisms

b.    Effect of sympathetic enervation on the kidney function

8.    Urine movement

a.    Micturition reflex

                                         ii.    Ureters

1.    Structure and function

                                        iii.    Urinary bladder

1.    Organs associated with the bladder

a.    In female

b.    In male

2.    Structure

3.    Function

                                       iv.    Urethra

b.    Fluids and Electrolytes

                                          i.    Body fluid compartment

1.    ICF

2.    ECF

                                         ii.    Composition of fluid in the body fluid compartments

                                        iii.    Exchange between body fluid compartments

1.    Hydrostatic pressure

2.    Osmotic pressure

                                       iv.    Regulation of extracellular fluid composition

1.    Thirst

2.    Ions

a.    Sodium ions

b.    Potassium ions

c.    Calcium ions

d.    Phosphate and sulfate ions

                                        v.    Regulations of acid-base balance

1.    Buffers

a.    Proteins

b.    Phosphate buffer system

c.    Bicarbonate buffer system

2.    Respiratory system

3.    Kidneys

                                       vi.    Alteration in the buffering mechanism

1.    Acidosis

2.    Alkalosis

XIII.        NERVOUS SYSTEM

a.    Division of the nervous system

                                          i.    Central nervous system

                                         ii.    Peripheral nervous system

b.    Cells of the nervous: neurons

                                          i.    Nervous or nerve cell

1.    Types of the nervous neuron on the basis of shape

a.    Multipolar neuron

b.    Bipolar neuron

c.    Unipolar neuron

2.    Functions

a.    Sensory of afferent nerve

b.    Special senses

                                         ii.    Neurologic or glial cell

                                        iii.    Myelin sheath

                                       iv.    Organization of the nervous tissues

                                        v.    Propagation of action potential

                                       vi.    Properties of nerve tissue

c.    Central nervous system

                                          i.    Parts of the CNS

1.    Brain

2.    Spinal cord

                                         ii.    Brain regions

1.    Brainstem

2.    Diencephalon

3.    Cerebrum

4.    Cerebellum

                                        iii.    Pathway and functions of CNS

d.    Peripheral nervous system

e.    Autonomic nervous system

XIV.       SPECIFIC SENSES

a.    Major groups

                                          i.    General senses

                                         ii.    Special sense

1.    Smell

2.    Taste

3.    Sight

4.    Hearing

5.    Balance

b.    General sense

                                          i.    Receptors

                                         ii.    Nerve endings

                                        iii.    Pain

c.    Special senses

                                          i.    Olfaction

                                         ii.    Taste

                                        iii.    Vision and Eye Visual System

                                       iv.    Hearing and balance

XV.        REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

a.    Male reproductive system

                                          i.    Parts

1.    Scrotum

2.    Testes

3.    Spermatogenesis

4.    Ducts

5.    Penis

6.    Glands

7.    Secretions

                                         ii.    Physiology of male reproduction

1.    Regulation of sex hormone secretion

2.    Puberty

3.    Effects of testosterone

4.    Male sexual behavior and the male sexual act

b.    Female reproductive system

                                          i.    Parts

1.    Ovaries

2.    Uterine tubes

3.    Uterus

4.    Vagina

5.    External genitalia

6.    Mammary glands

                                         ii.    Physiology of female reproduction

1.    Puberty

2.    Menstrual cycle

3.    Menopause

4.    Female sexual behavior and the female sexual act.